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Abandoned wells - Abandoned drainage wells and abandoned water wells on vacant farmsteads are of particular concern for agriculture. Abandoned wells can present both safety risks and a direct conduit by which groundwater can be contaminated by surface runoff. A number of states have incentive and/or regulatory programs to cap of seal abandoned wells.

Acid deposition / acid rain - Abnormally acidic (low pH) precipitation (or dry deposition) resulting from emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that transform during chemical processes in the atmosphere. Acid deposition can affect the chemistry of soils and acidify lakes, adversely affecting forests and fish. It does not adversely affect cropland. The Clean Air Act includes a program focused on controlling precursor emissions of acid deposition - primarily sulfur oxides from coal-fired electric utilities.

Acid soil - Soil with a pH of less than 7.0.

Acquired lands - Lands in federal ownership that were obtained by the federal government through purchase, condemnation, gift, or exchange. One category of public lands.

Acre - 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft = 208.7 ft.² = 0.405 hectares; or 640 acres = 1 sq. mile (called a section).

Acre-foot - The volume of water that would cover one acre of land (43,560 square feet) to a depth of one foot, equivalent to 325,851 gallons of water. an acre-foot is the basic measure of agricultural water use. On average, irrigators apply almost 2 feet of water on each acre through the crop growing season; the amount ranges from 4 feet in the Southwest to a half foot in some eastern states. Water withdrawn for irrigation from ground and surface sources totals about 150 maf (million acre-feet) of water annually.

Acreage allotment - Under provisions of permanent commodity price support law, a farm's acreage allotment is its share, based on its previous production, of the national acreage needed to produce sufficient supplies of a particular crop. Under the FAIR Act of 1996, acreage allotments are not applicable to the contract commodities, peanuts or sugar. However, acreage allotments still apply to tobacco.

Acreage base (or base acres) - A farm's average planted acreage for a specific crop over the previous five years (for wheat or feed grains) or three years (for cotton or rice), plus land not planted because of certain acreage reduction or diversion programs. Commodity acreage bases were eliminated by the FAIR Act of 1996.

Acreage conservation reserve - The cropland acreage diverted from production under the acreage reduction program.

Acreage diversion program - Historically, commodity programs included provisions to reduce commodity supplies by diverting acreage to non-crop uses. Examples include paid diversion, unpaid diversion, set-aside, and acreage reduction programs. The FAIR Act of 1996 eliminated authority for the USDA to implement annual acreage reduction programs. The Conservation Reserve Program pays farmers for the long-term conversion of fragile crop land to conserving uses and is not considered to be an acreage diversion program.

Acreage limitation - With respect to commodity policy, acreage limitation might refer to planting constraints under an acreage reduction program, set-aside, or paid land diversion. In relation to water policy, it is the maximum number of acres that may be irrigated with less than full-cost water from Bureau of Reclamation projects. Generally, the acreage limitation for individuals or legal entities representing 25 people or fewer is 960 acres; however, amounts vary depending on a landowner's legal status. Also referred to as ownership limitation, ownership entitlement, or non-full-cost entitlement.

Acreage Reduction Program (ARP) - A no longer authorized annual cropland retirement program for wheat, feed grains, cotton, or rice in which farmers participating in the commodity programs (in order to be eligible for nonrecourse loans and deficiency payments) were mandated to idle a crop-specific, nationally-set portion of their base acreage during years of surplus. The idled acreage (called the acreage conservation reserve) was devoted to a conserving use. The goal was to reduce supplies, thereby raising market prices. Additionally, idled acres did not earn deficiency payments, thus reducing the commodity program costs. ARP was criticized for diminishing the U.S. competitive position in export markets. The FAIR Act of 1996 did not reauthorize authority for ARPs. ARP differed from a set-aside program in that under a set-aside program reductions were based upon current year plantings, and did not require farmers to reduce their plantings of a specific crop.

Action levels - As opposed to tolerances (which are established for pesticide residues occurring as a direct result of proper usage), action levels are set for inadvertent residues resulting from previous legal use or accidental contamination. At the action level set by the Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Drug Administration and USDA are required to take enforcement action against the contaminated food or agricultural commodity. The term is also used in regulatory programs.

Active ingredient - In any pesticide product, the component that kills, or otherwise controls, target pests. Pesticides are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency primarily on the basis of active ingredients.

Actual Production History (APH) - A measure of an individual farmer's annual production of a commodity over a multi-year period. The APH serves as the basis for the farmer's "normal" crop yield in the crop insurance program. When the actual crop yield deviates by more than a certain percentage from the APH, an insured producer is eligible for an indemnity (loss) payment.

Actuarially sound - The financial goal of any insurance program (including the federal crop insurance program) is to operate on an actuarially sound basis; that is, total premiums collected should more than offset total indemnities paid out.

Acute toxicity - The ability of a substance to cause harmful effects soon after a single exposure or dose. Also, any sever poisonous effect resulting from a singe short-tem exposure to a toxic substance.

Additional peanuts - Peanuts sold from a farm in any marketing year in excess of the amount of quota peanuts sold from that farm. Additional peanuts must be exported or crushed into oil and meal. Additionals are eligible only for the lower of two price support levels available under the peanut price support program. The lower additionals loan rate is set to ensure that the CCC does not incur losses on their sale and disposal. In setting this support level of $175 per ton, USDA is also required to take into account the demand for peanut oil and meal, expected prices of other vegetable oils and protein meals, and the demand for peanuts in foreign markets. Under the FAIR Act of 1996, price support loans for additional peanuts remain available.

Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) Pilot Program - A pilot revenue insurance program first implemented in 1999 by USDA on a limited basis. It allows farmers to receive a guarantee of a percentage of their revenue for multiple commodities, including some livestock revenue, rather than just the revenue from an individual commodity.

Adjusted world price - As part of the upland cotton and the rice marketing assistance loan programs, USDA calculates and publishes, on a weekly basis, what is known as the adjusted world price (AWP). The AWP is the prevailing world price for upland cotton, adjusted to account for U.S. quality and location. Producers who have taken out USDA marketing assistance loans may choose to repay them at either the lesser of the established loan rate for upland cotton, plus interest, or the announced AWP for that week. The AWP for cotton also is used for determining Step 2 payments.

Administrative convergence - USDA in 198 was developing a plan to consolidate the administrative function (e.g., accounting, budgeting, procurement, personnel) of its field service agencies at the state level under one office, to be called the Support Service Bureau. Currently, separate administrative structures provide support to these agencies. USDA has named this effort its "Administrative Convergence Plan", or simply "administrative convergence." The term also has been used to describe any USDA effort to streamline, or combine under one entity, the administrative functions of one or more of its agencies.

Administrative Procedure Act - P.L. 79-404 (July 11, 1946), as amended, establishes, among other things, minimum procedural requirements or models for federal agency rulemaking and certain types of hearings. For instance, the APA establishes procedures for informal rulemaking, which may include notice-and-comment requirements, or formal rulemaking, which includes trial-type hearings. Exemptions from rulemaking requirements are included in the Act. The APA provides standards for judicial review of final agency action. The provisions of the APA apply to USDA rulemaking, unless exempted under the provisions of another statute. For example, hearings conducted by the USDA's National Appeals Division (NAD) are not governed by the APA. The final determination of the NAD is reviewable and enforceable by a U.S. District Court in accordance with the judicial review provisions of the APA.

Adulterated Food - Generally, impure, unsafe, or unwholesome; however, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, the Federal Meat Inspection Act, and the Poultry Products Inspection Act contain separate language defining in very specific (and lengthy) terms how the term "adulterated" will be applied to the foods each of these laws regulates. Products that are adulterated under these laws' definitions cannot enter into commerce for human food use.

Advance deficiency payments - Initial payments (ranging from 30 to 50% of the total payment) made to crop producers when they signed up for federal commodity programs. If the total deficiency payment was eventually calculated to be less than the advance deficiency payment, the producer was required to refund the difference. The FAIR Act of 1996 replaces the target price/deficiency payment subsidy mechanism with production flexibility contract payments.

Advance recourse loans - Price-support loans made early in a crop year to farmers to enable them to hold their crops for later sale, usually within the marketing year. Farmers must repay the recourse loan with interest and reclaim their collateral.

Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations (ACTPN) - A 45-member group appointed by the President to provide advice on matters of trade policy and related issues, including trade agreements. The 1974 Trade Act requires the ACTPN's establishment and broad representation of key economic sectors affected by trade. Below ACTPN are seven policy committees, including the Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee (APAC). The Agriculture Policy Advisory Committee is made up of farm sector and industry representatives.

Affirmative defense - A legal argument a defendant to a legal preceding can raise which provides a protection or defense for the conduct in question. In actions for the costs of cleaning up groundwater contamination state law may provide an affirmative defense for farmers who use pesticides according to label directions and apply fertilizers based on the results of soil tests.

Aflatoxin - Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by two types of mold: aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found when certain grains are grown under stressful conditions such as drought. Favorable conditions for mold growth include high moisture content and high temperature. At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature with aflatoxin B1 considered as the most toxic. While the presence of Aspergillus flavus does not always indicate harmful levels of aflatoxin it does mean that the potential for aflatoxin production is present. The Food and Drug Administration has established action levels for aflatoxin present in food or feed to protect human and animal health. The FDA will consider action if aflatoxin levels exceed: 20 ppb for corn and other grains intended for immature animals (including immature poultry) and for dairy animals, or when its destination is not known; 20 ppb for animal feeds, other than corn or cottonseed meal; 100 ppb for corn and other grains intended for breeding beef cattle, breeding swine, or mature poultry; 200 ppb for corn and other grains intended for finishing swine of 100 pounds or greater; 300 ppb for corn and other grains intended for finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle and for cottonseed meal intended for beef cattle, swine or poultry. All corn exported from the United States is required to be tested for aflatoxin. Aflatoxin testing services are available nationwide, upon request and for a fee using several different types of test kits approved by GIPSA.

Africa: Seeds of Hope Act - Passed by Congress on October 20, 1998, the Act supports sustainable, broad-based agricultural and rural development in the sub-Saharan Africa through social and economic development in a way that strengthens and expands market-led economic growth and reduces poverty.

African Food Security Initiative - A U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)-sponsored initiative to improve child nutrition and increase agricultural income of rural people throughout Africa by increasing agricultural production, increasing small farmers' access to the market, and expanding agricultural trade and investment.

Agency for International Development (AID or USAID) - An independent agency of the executive branch, established in 1961, that administers U.S. international development and humanitarian assistance programs. The activities often involve joint efforts with private voluntary organizations (PVOs). USAID administers commodity donations for humanitarian or development purposes under Titles II and III of P.L. 480, or Food for Peace, and commodity import programs.

Agreement on Agriculture - Part of the Uruguay Round agreement covering issues related to agriculture, e.g., market access, export subsidies, and internal support.

Aggregate Measure of Support - An index that measures the monetary value of the extent of government support to a sector. The AMS, as defined in the Agreement on Agriculture, includes both budgetary outlays as well as revenue transfers from consumers to producers as a result of policies that distort market prices.

Agribusiness - Agriculturally related businesses that supply farm inputs (such as fertilizer or equipment) or are involved in the marketing of farm products (such as warehouses, processors, wholesalers, transporters, and retailers). Farms are not usually included when the term agribusiness is used.

Agricultural Act of 1949 - P.L. 89-439 (October 31, 1949), along with the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, makes up the major part of the permanent law that mandates commodity price and farm income support. The original 1949 Act designated mandatory support for basic commodities and the following nonbasic commodities: wool and mohair, tung nuts, honey, Irish potatoes (excluded in the Agricultural Act of 1954), and milk, butterfat, and their products. Periodic farm bills (most recently the FAIR Act of 1996) make temporary changes in the levels and design of commodity programs.

Agricultural Act of 1954 - P.L. 83-690 (August 28, 1954) established a flexible price support for basic commodities (excluding tobacco) at 82.5-90% of parity and authorized a Commodity Credit Corporation reserve for foreign and domestic relief. Title VII was designated the National Wool Act of 1954 and provided for a new price support program for wool and mohair to encourage increased domestic production. Price support for wool and mohair continued through marketing year 1995, at which time it was phased down and terminated under the explicit mandate of P.L. 103-130 (November 1, 1993).

Agricultural Act of 1956 - P.L. 84-540 (May 28, 1956) created the Soil Bank Program (Title I of was called the Soil Bank Act), addressed the disposal of CCC inventories of surplus stocks, contained commodity support program provisions, and forestry provisions. The Soil Bank Act authorized short- and long-term removal of land from production with annual rental payments to participants (Acreage Reserve Program and Conservation Reserve Program, respectively). The Acreage Reserve Program, for wheat, corn, rice, cotton, peanuts, and several types of tobacco, allowed producers to retire land on an annual basis in crop years 1956 through 1959 in return for payments. The Conservation Reserve Program allowed producers to retire cropland under contracts of 3, 5, or 10 years in return for annual payments. The Soil Bank Act was repealed by Section 601 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1965. The Conservation Reserve portion of the Soil Bank was a model for the subsequent Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), enacted in 1985.

Agricultural Act of 1970 - P.L. 91-524 (November 30, 1970) initiated a significant change in commodity support policy. This 3-year farm bill replaced some of the more restrictive and mandatory features of acreage allotments, planting restrictions, and marketing quotas with voluntary annual cropland set-asides and marketing certificate payments to achieve parity prices (the precursor to target prices and deficiency payments). For the first time, the law adopted an annual payment limitation per producer (set at $55,000 per crop). The Act also amended and extended the authority of the Class I differential in federal milk marketing order areas.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 - P.L. 73-10 (May 12, 1933) was the New Deal initiative to assist the farm sector during the Great Depression. This was the first comprehensive effort to raise and stabilize farm prices and income. The law created and authorized the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to (1) enter into voluntary agreements to pay farmers to reduce production of designated "basic" commodities (cotton, wheat,corn, rice, tobacco, hogs, and milk), (2) to make advance payments to farmers who stored crops on the farm, (3) to create marketing agreements between farmers and middlemen, and (4) to levy processing taxes to pay for production adjustment and market development. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) was incorporated under the laws of the state of Delaware on October 17, 1933, to carry out financial activities, including making nonrecourse loans on the basic crops. Support for other commodities was authorized upon recommendation by the Secretary with the President's approval. Commodity loan programs carried out by the CCC for 1933-37 included cotton, corn, rosin, turpentine, tobacco, peanuts, dates, figs, and prunes. The provisions for production control and processing taxes in the Act were later declared unconstitutional in the Hoosac Mills decision of 1936. Congress responded by adopting the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937, and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, all of which remain as permanent law.

Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935 - P.L. 74-320 (August 24, 1935) made several important and lasting changes to the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933. Section 22 of the law gave the President authority to impose quotas when imports interfered with commodity programs designed to raise prices and farm income. Section 32 was designed to widen market outlets for surplus agricultural commodities by permanently appropriating funds to purchase commodities for primarily child nutrition programs. Section 22 has been superseded, but Section 32 continues to operate.

Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 - P.L. 75-430 (February 16, 1938) was enacted as an alternative and replacement for the farm subsidy policies found unworkable in the AAA legislation of 1933. The 1938 Act was the first to make price support mandatory for corn, cotton, and wheat to help maintain a sufficient supply in low production periods along with marketing quotas to keep supply in line with market demand. It established permissive supports for butter, dates, figs, hops, turpentine, rosin, pecans, prunes, raisins, barley, rye, grain sorghum, wool, winter cover-crop seeds, mohair, peanuts, and tobacco for the 1938-40 period. Also, Title V of the Act established the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. The 1938 Act is considered part of permanent legislation for commodity programs and farm income support (along with the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act and the Agricultural Act of 1949). Provisions of this law are often superseded by more current legislation (such as the FAIR Act of 1996). However, if the current legislation expires and new legislation is not enacted, the law reverts back to the permanent provisions of the 1938 Act.

Agricultural Attaché, Counselor, or Trade Officer - An agricultural expert, employed by the Foreign Agricultural Service, on the staff of an U.S. embassy, consulate, or agricultural trade office.

Agricultural chemicals - Used generally to refer to both pesticides and fertilizers and in some situations may include animal drugs.

Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) - Administered by the Farm Service Agency, this largest and oldest conservation cost-sharing program paid farmers up to $3,500 per year as an incentive to install approved conservation practices. It was terminated in the FAIR Act of 1996 and replaced by a new Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP).

Agricultural Credit Act of 1987 - P.L. 100-233 (January 6, 1988) was enacted in response to the severe financial crisis of the early- to mid-1980s which affected both farmers and their lending institutions. The Act authorized a $4 billion financial assistance package for financially vulnerable institutions of the Farm Credit System (FCS), protected the full value of FCS borrower stock when retired, established a permanent insurance mechanism to ensure the repayment of funds borrowed by the FCS for lending purposes, required the FCS and Farmers Home Administration to restructure severely delinquent farm loans that meet certain criteria, mandated FCS consolidation and established a secondary market for farm real estate loans.

Agricultural Credit Association (ACA) - An institution of the Farm Credit System that has direct lending authority to make short-, intermediate- and long-term loans to agricultural producers, rural homeowners and some farm-related businesses.

Agricultural district - A planning term which defines an area in which farming is the preferred economic activity. Districts may be voluntarily created by landowners who receive benefits, usually in return for not developing the land for a certain number of years, or they may be designated in a local land use plan.

Agricultural diversification - A system of farming that encourages production of a variety of plants and animals and their products as opposed to monoculture or large-scale specialization. Advocates of diversification argue that it provides greater income stability. Specialized farms benefit from economies of size.

Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 - This law (P.L. 90-288) was enacted to protect farmers from retaliation by handlers (buyers of their products) because the farmers are members of a cooperative. The act permits farmers to file complaints with USDA, which can then institute court proceedings, if they believe their rights under the law have been violated. Several bills have been introduced in recent years on behalf of producers (among them, some poultry growers who have contracts with large companies), to give them more bargaining power under the act, which, some producers contend, lacks adequate enforcement authorities.

Agricultural Market Transition Act (AMTA) - Title I of the FAIR Act of 1996. It allows farmers who have participated in the wheat, feed grain, cotton, and rice programs in any one of the 5 years prior to 1996 to enter into 7-year production flexibility contracts for 1996-2002. Total national production flexibility contract payments (sometimes called AMTA payments, or contract payments) for each fiscal year are fixed in the law. The AMTA allows farmers to plant 100% of their total contract acreage to any crop except fruits and vegetables, and receive a full payment. Land must be maintained in agricultural uses. Unlimited haying and grazing and planting and harvesting alfalfa and other forage crops are permitted with no reduction in payments.

Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 - This law reaffirmed the marketing agreements provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 and redefined the process for establishing marketing orders. Under the authority of this permanent law and subsequent amendments, marketing orders have been established for milk as well as numerous fruits and vegetables.

Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) - A USDA agency that establishes standards for grades of cotton, tobacco, meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables. It also operates inspection and grading services and market news services, and provides supervisory administration for federal marketing orders.

Agricultural pollution - Wastes, emissions, and discharges arising from farming activities. Causes include runoff and leaching of pesticides and fertilizers; pesticide drift and volatilization; erosion and dust from cultivation; and improper disposal of animal manure and carcasses. Some agricultural pollution is point source, e.g., large feedlots, which require permits under the Clean Water Act, but much is nonpoint source, meaning that it derives from dispersed origins, e.g., blowing dust or nutrients leaching from fields. As most pollution control programs have focused on particular categories of point sources, nonpoint and unregulated point sources account for an increasingly large proportion of remaining pollution. Based on state surveys, the Environmental Protection Agency concludes that agricultural sources account for over one-half the pollution impairing surface water quality in the U.S. The Clean Water Act mandates that states develop and implement management programs to control nonpoint sources of water pollution.

Agricultural Quarantine Inspection (AQI) - A program, administered by USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, that inspects incoming passengers, luggage, and cargo at U.S. ports of entry in order to protect U.S. agriculture from foreign animal and plant pests and diseases.

Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998 - P.L. 105-185 (June 23, 1998) reauthorized and revised federally supported agricultural research, education, and extension programs. The Act built upon reforms that were made in the research title of the FAIR Act of 1996. Key provisions were new accountability measures for recipients of federal research funds, and a 5-year research Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems that was authorized to be funded by savings from food stamp administrative costs. This law reduced federal spending for states' food stamp program administrative and work/training costs and extended food stamp benefits to approximately one-third of the legal immigrants denied food stamps by the 1996 welfare reform legislation. P.L. 105-185 expires in 2002.

Agricultural Research Service (ARS) - A USDA agency which conducts basic, applied, and developmental research of regional, national, or international concerns in the fields of livestock; plants; soil, water, and air quality; energy; food safety quality; nutrition; food processing, storage and distribution efficiency; nonfood agricultural products; and international development.

Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) - A former USDA agency that was responsible for administering farm price and income support programs as well as some conservation and forestry cost-sharing program. Local offices are maintained in nearly all farming counties. Its functions were folded into the Farm Service Agency (FSA) as a consequence of USDA reorganization in 1994.

Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 - P.L. 83-480 (July 10, 1954) is commonly referred to as "PL 480" and "Food for Peace." The law established what continues to be the primary U.S. overseas food assistance program. The program makes U.S. agricultural commodities available through long-term credit at low interest rates and provides food donations.

Agricultural Trade Office - The Agricultural Trade Act of 1978 directed the establishment of trade offices in major centers of commerce throughout the world. Agricultural trade offices are operated by the Foreign Agricultural Service to develop, maintain, and expand international markets for U.S. agricultural commodities and serve as centers for export sales promotion and contact points for importers seeking to buy U.S. farm products.

Agricultural zoning - A designation intended to protect farmland and farming activities from incompatible nonfarm uses. Agricultural zoning can specify many factors, such as the uses allowed, minimum farm size, the number of nonfarm dwellings allowed, or the size of a buffer separating farm and nonfarm properties.

Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 - P.L. 93-86 (August 10, 1973) was the 4-year farm bill that adopted target prices and deficiency payments as a tool that would support farm income but reduce forfeitures to the Commodity Credit Corporation of surplus stocks. It reduced payment limitations to $20,000 (from $55,000 set in 1970) for all program crops. The Act might be considered the first omnibus farm bill because it went beyond simply authorizing farm commodity programs. It authorized disaster payments and disaster reserve inventories; created the Rural Environmental Conservation Program; amended the Food Stamp Act of 1964, authorizing the use of commodities for feeding low income mothers and young children (the origin of the supplemental food program); and amended the Rural Development Act of 1972.

Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 - P.L. 97-98 (December 22, 1981) was the 4-year omnibus farm bill that continued and modified commodity programs through 1985. It set specific target prices for 4 years, eliminated rice allotments and marketing quotas, lowered dairy supports, and made other changes affecting a wide range of USDA activities. The next year this farm bill was amended to freeze the dairy price support level and mandate loan rates and acreage reserve provisions for the 1983 crops (Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1982, P.L. 97-253). Again in 1984, amendments were adopted to freeze target prices, authorize paid land diversion for feed grains, upland cotton, and rice, and provide a wheat payment-in-kind program for 1984 (Agricultural Programs Adjustment Act of 1984, P.L. 98-258).

Agriculture in Concert with the Environment (ACE) - An Environmental Protection Agency program, administered cooperatively with USDA's Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program, to fund research projects that reduce the risk of pollution from pesticides and soluble fertilizers.

Agronomy - The science of crop production and soil management.

Air pollution - Contamination of the atmosphere by substances that, directly or indirectly, adversely affect human health or welfare. Air pollution results from human activities, both deliberate releases (as from smokestacks) and fugitive emissions (as dust blown from streets or fields), and from natural sources, including sea spray, volcanic emissions, pollen, etc. The Clean Air Act authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate air pollution (see National Ambient Air Quality Standards).

Alar - Trade name for daminozide, a plant regulator and therefore classed as a pesticide, that makes apples redder, firmer, and less likely to drop off trees before harvest. It was also used to a lesser extent on peanuts, tart cherries, concord grapes, and other fruits. Alar was suspended by the Environmental Protection Agency in 1989 following a controversy over allegations of cancer risk to children from residues of Alar and its breakdown product UDMH on apples and in apple products.

Alcohol - The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds that includes methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and others. Ethanol is produced from crops or residues with a high carbohydrate content. Alcoholic beverages contain ethanol, and ethanol is blended with gasoline to produce gasohol. Most industrial ethanol produced in the U.S. is from corn wet-milling.

Alfalfa - A valuable leguminous crop for forage or hay used in livestock feeding.

Alien Species Prevention and Enforcement Act of 1992 - P.L. 102-393 (October 6, 1992) makes it illegal to ship certain categories of plants and animals through the mail. The prohibited species are certain injurious animals, plant pests, plants and materials under federal quarantine, and certain plants and animals under the Lacey Act, a law that pertains to illegal trade in fish, wildlife, and plants.

Alkaline soil - Soil with a pH of more than 7.0.

Allotment - In conjunction with commodity support programs, acreage allotments and marketing quotas serve to limit a farm's output or volume marketed. For federal lands grazing, an allotment is an area designated and managed for grazing of livestock. The Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service stipulate the number of livestock and time period (season) of use for each allotment under their respective jurisdictions.

Allowable sale quantity (ASQ) - A forestry term defined in law as the maximum amount of timber that can be sold every year, forever, from a national forest; in forest planning, the annual timber sale target for a national forest.

Alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Corporation (AARCC) - Originally established by the FACT Act 1990 as the Applied Agricultural Research Commercialization Center, the purpose of the AARCC is to assist in the research, development, and commercialization of new nonfood products from agricultural and forestry commodities. AARC makes repayable equity investments, such as buying stock or taking a percentage of future sales (royalties), or both. The FAIR Act of 1996 changed the Center from a government agency to a wholly-owned venture capital corporation of USDA.

Alternative agriculture - A systematic approach to farming intended to reduce agricultural pollution, enhance sustainability, and improve efficiency and profitability. Overall, alternative agriculture emphasizes management practices that take advantage of natural processes (such as nutrient cycles, nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator relationships), improve the match between cropping patterns and agronomic practices on the one hand and the productive potential and physical characteristics of the land on the other, and make selective use of commercial fertilizer and pesticides to ensure production efficiency and conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources. Examples of alternative agricultural practices include use of crop rotation, animal and green manures, soil and water conserving tillage systems, such as no-till planting methods, integrated pest management, and use of genetically improved crops and animals. Consonant with sustainable agriculture, alternative agriculture focuses on those farming practices that go beyond traditional or conventional agriculture, though it does not exclude conventional practices that are consistent with the overall system.

Alternative farming - Production methods other than energy- and chemical-intensive one-crop (monoculture) farming. Alternatives include using animal and green manure rather than chemical fertilizers, integrated pest management instead of chemical pesticides, reduced tillage, crop rotation (especially with legumes to add nitrogen), alternative crops, or diversification of the farm enterprise.

Alternative fuels - Substitutes for traditional liquid, oil-derived motor vehicle fuels like gasoline and diesel. Includes methanol, ethanol, biodiesel, compressed natural gas, and others. The alternatives are promoted for pollution reduction properties and/or to reduce U.S. dependence on imported oil. Ethanol can be produced from grain, agricultural wastes, and excess crops.

(American) Heritage Rivers Protection Program - A Clinton Administration initiative to deliver federal resources more efficiently and effectively that supports voluntary community efforts to enhance and protect designated rivers or river segments; the designations were selected based on proposals submitted by local sponsors. Portions of these designations are located in or affect agricultural lands.

Ammonia - A pungent alkaline gas, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH3). It is formed naturally when bacteria decompose nitrogen-containing compounds, such as manures. Emissions of ammonia can be a problem in enclosed livestock facilities, and in the ambient air they may contribute to very fine particulate matter. Synthetic ammonia is used as a nitrogen fertilizer. Also called anhydrous ammonia, it is the basic feed stock for the production of all nitrogen fertilizers as well as being a direct application material. Synthetic ammonia is made through a reaction between natural gas and nitrogen.

Andean Common Market (ANCOM or Andean Group) - Formed in May 1969 by Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia under the Cartegena Agreement, which called for eliminating all barriers to trade by the end of 1980 and the establishment of a common external tariff. Venezuela joined in 1973. Chile withdrew in 1976.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) - A USDA agency established to conduct inspections and regulatory and control programs to protect animal and plant health. It utilizes border inspections to prevent international transmission of pests and disease, administers quarantine and eradication programs, and certifies that U.S. exports meet importing countries' animal and plant health standards.

Animal Damage Control (ADC) Program - Renamed in 1997 as the Wildlife Services (WS) program, it is an Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service effort to protect agriculture, natural resources, property or endangered species from unwanted and potentially harmful effects of wildlife species, including predators. ADC also works to prevent wildlife/airplane collision hazards at civilian and military airports.

Animal drugs - Drugs intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in animals. The Food and Drug Administration has the broad mandate under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act to assure the safety and effectiveness of animal drugs and their use in all animals, including farm animals. Before FDA formally approves an animal drug, the sponsor or manufacturer of the drug must show in its premarket approval application that the drug is "safe and effective" in scientific testing. Such testing data, included with the application, must demonstrate a methodology to detect and measure any residue left in edible animal products and show that edible animal products when ready-to-eat are free from unsafe residues. Farmers and veterinarians treating farm animals must adhere to any restrictions about withdrawal times, or any warning or use constraints stated on the drug label.

Animal feeding operation - Facilities where animals are kept and raised in confined situations; feed is brought to the animals. The General Accounting Office estimates that there are 450,000 such operations nationwide. When large enough, these facilities are designated as concentrated animal feeding operations and they become subject to regulatory requirements to prevent point source pollution. USDA and the Environmental Protection Agency issued a Unified National Strategy for Animal Feeding Operations on March 9, 1999. The goal is to minimize water pollution from confinement facilities and land application of manure through adoption of site-specific comprehensive nutrient management plans.

Animal identification and traceback - Currently, the private marketing system, assisted by computerization of records, generally can trace products back to their original suppliers, although not necessarily all the way to the farm. It has been suggested that a type of traceback program might be formalized to better monitor and contain outbreaks of food borne illness. USDA has called "animal identification" an important element of any traceback system. Livestock producers already frequently identify their animals using back-tags, ear tags, tatoos, and other devices, so that incorporating animal identification into a traceback program might not be difficult. While few dispute the usefulness of animal identification and traceback systems in general, whether they should be made regulatory requirements, or remain voluntary, is a contentious issue.

Animal protein - Protein used in livestock feed that is derived from meatpacking or rendering plants, surplus milk or milk products, and marine sources.

Animal unit - A standard measure, based on feed requirements, used to combine various classes of livestock according to size, weight, age, and use. For federal lands, an animal unit represents one mature cow, bull, steer, heifer, horse, mule, or five sheep, or five goats, all over six months of age.

Animal unit month (AUM) - An animal unit month (AUM) is the amount of forage needed to sustain one animal unit, or its equivalent, for one month. Grazing fees for federal lands are charged by animal unit months or head-months.

Animal Welfare Act - P.L. 89-544 (August 24, 1966) was enacted to curb the theft and mistreatment of dogs and cats for experimental and research purposes. The principal federal animal protection law, it has been amended several times to address specific concerns such as the shipping of pets on public transportation, dog fighting, and using other warm-blooded animals in biomedical experiments. Although administered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, the law has always excluded farm animals from its coverage. Generally, USDA is authorized to "promulgate standards to govern the humane handling, care, treatment, and practices in experimental procedures to ensure that animal pain and distress are minimized...." The law excludes from the definition of animal "...horses not used for research purposes and other farm animals, such as, but not limited to livestock or poultry, used or intended for use as food or fiber, or livestock or poultry used or intended for use for improving animal nutrition, breeding, management, or production efficiency, or for improving the quality of food or fiber." Animal welfare has become more controversial in recent years as certain animal protection groups have argued for more extensive legal protections for animals. Some groups believe that any human uses of animals are inhumane, unethical and/or immoral, and should be prohibited. Among those who accept the premise that humans should and will use animals for food and other necessities, the debate over the meaning of animal welfare revolves around the most appropriate methods for taking care of animals, including farm animals. For example, legislation has been proposed (but not enacted) in recent years that would intervene in animal production operations by regulating confinement facilities; determining the diets of veal calves; specifying how poultry must be slaughtered; and prohibiting dealers from handling nonambulatory (downer) livestock unless they are humanely killed.

Antemortem - Before slaughter. As used in the meat and poultry inspection program, the term refers to the examination that USDA meat inspectors are required to conduct of all live animals just before they are killed.

Antibiotics - Chemical substances produced by microorganisms or synthetically that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria. Antibiotics are used at therapeutic levels to fight disease in humans and animals. Since the 1950s they have been used at subtherapeutic levels in animal feeds to enhance growth and prevent disease in livestock and poultry. Rules guiding the use of veterinary drugs and medicated animal feeds, including tolerance levels for drug residues in meats for human consumption, are promulgated by the Center for Veterinary Medicine of the Food and Drug Administration. The Food Safety and Inspection Service enforces the FDA rules through a sampling and testing program that is part of its overall meat and poultry inspection program.

Anti-dumping duty - A duty or levy imposed under authority of Title VII of the U.S. Tariff Act of 1930. Title VII states that if the U.S. Department of Commerce determines that an imported product is being sold at less than its fair value, and if the International Trade Commission determines that a U.S. producer is thereby being injured, the Commerce Department shall apply antidumping duties equivalent to the dumping margin.

Appraised stumpage price (or appraised rate) - On national forests, the Forest Service estimate of the market price for timber to be cut and removed. It cannot be less than the base rates. The appraised price is the advertised minimum for competitive bidding by purchasers.

Aquaculture - The production of aquatic plants or animals in a controlled environment, such as ponds, raceways, tanks, or cages, for all or part of their life cycle. In the United States, baitfish, catfish, clams, crawfish, freshwater prawns, mussels, oysters, salmon, shrimp, tropical (or ornamental) fish, and trout account for most of the aquacultural growing production. Less widely established but growing species include alligator, hybrid striped bass, carp, eel, red fish, northern pike, sturgeon and tilapia.

Aquifer - An underground geological formation, or group of formations, containing usable amounts of groundwater that can supply wells or springs for domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses. Removing more groundwater from an aquifer than is naturally replenished is called overdrafting, and can result in a dropping water table, increased pumping costs, land subsidence (which reduces the future recharge capacity), saltwater intrusion, reduced streamflows in interconnected ground- and surface-water systems, and exhaustion of groundwater reserves. Overdrafting groundwater occurs primarily in the Plains States and the West.

Area yield options contract - A contract entitling the holder to receive a payment when the area yield is below (above) the put (call) option strike yield. The strike yield is the yield at which the holder of an option contract can exercise the option.

Arid climate - A dry climate with an annual precipitation usually less than 10 inches. Not suitable for crop production without irrigation.

Army Corps of Engineers - A federal agency, part of the Department of the Army, which has jurisdiction over the navigable waters of the United States. The Army Corps is responsible for granting §404 permits concerning depositing dredge and fill materials in wetlands under federal jurisdiction [33 U.S.C. §1344].

Artificial insemination (AI) - The mechanical injection of semen into the womb of the female animal with a syringe-like apparatus.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum - Established in 1989, APEC is a formal institution with a permanent secretariat located in Singapore. Its original 12 members include Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Brunei. In 1991, APEC admitted China, Taiwan (admitted as Chinese Taipei), and Hong Kong. Mexico and Papua New Guinea joined in 1993; Chile joined in 1994; Peru, Russia, and Vietnam joined in 1998. The 21 nation member APEC provides a forum for ministerial level discussion and cooperation on a range of economic issues including trade, investment, technology transfer, and transportation. According to APEC, a key feature that sets it apart from other international organizations is its commitment to business facilitation and the regular involvement of the private sector in a wide range of APEC activities.

Asian long-horned beetle - A serious pest of hardwood trees in its native China that by 1998 had been found in 14 states in the United States, where it has no known natural enemies. APHIS is now working to detect and destroy the beetle, which is virtually impossible to eradicate with pesticides because it bores deep inside trees to lay its eggs; the only known suppression method is to remove and destroy infected trees. The agency reports that the beetle, which already has led to the destruction of many trees in parts of New York, could destroy millions of acres of hardwoods—including maples, horse chestnuts, poplars, willows, and elms—if it becomes established in the environment. APHIS believes that the beetle has been entering the United States in solid wood packing materials such as pallets and crates from China. For that reason, in late 1998, it banned all shipments from China containing such packing materials if they have not been treated to kill the pest.

Assessment - Generally an automatic or mandatory deduction from a producer's marketing receipts used to fund activities that promote or otherwise support a particular farm product. Under certain agricultural marketing orders or commodity promotion programs, assessments may be applied against receipts to help pay for generic advertising or research. The term check-off is often used interchangeably with assessment. Federal deficit reduction marketing assessments have also been connected to certain commodity price support programs (dairy, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and soybeans) to help reduce the federal budget deficit, which arguably is higher because of the programs.

Assimilative capacity - The ability of a body of water to cleanse itself; its capacity to receive waste waters or toxic materials without deleterious effects and without damage to aquatic life or humans who consume the water.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - A multilateral organization formed in 1967 by the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote economic, social, and cultural cooperation among nations in the Southeast Asian region. Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar joined later.

Atrazine - A selective herbicide, widely used on corn. It is environmentally significant, since it was the second most commonly detected pesticide residue in an Environmental Protection Agency survey of drinking water wells conducted during 1988-1990. Due to concerns about groundwater contamination and worker exposure, EPA is conducting a special review of atrazine registration.

Attainment area - An area considered to have air quality as good as or better than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards as defined in the Clean Air Act. An area may be an attainment area for one pollutant and a non-attainment area for others.

Attractant - A chemical or agent that lures insects or other pests by stimulating their sense of smell. Attractants are a nontoxic technique for luring insects into traps and are heavily used in orchard crops. Though distinct from toxic baits, attractants are regulated as pesticides.

Back hoe - A shovel mounted on the rear of a tractor, hydraulically operated to dig trenches or pits in soil.

Balance of payments - An accounting statement measuring the value of goods, services and capital exchanged between a country and all foreign countries. A nation is said to have either: (1) a balance of payments deficit if it sends abroad less in goods, services, and capital than it receives from foreigners; or (2) a balance of payments surplus if it sends abroad more in goods, services, and capital than it receives.

Balance of trade - The difference in value between a country’s merchandise imports and exports in a specified period. A country’s balance of trade is only one factor — though an important one — in its balance of payments.

Band application - The spreading of chemicals over, or next to, each row of plants in a field, as opposed to broadcast application.

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 - P.L. 75-210 authorized acquisition by the federal government of damaged lands to rehabilitate and use them for various purposes. Both the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management manage some Bankhead-Jones lands. Some Forest Service Bankhead Jones lands are National Grasslands.

Bank for Cooperatives (BC) - Lending institution within the Farm Credit System that provides credit to agricultural cooperatives and rural utility cooperatives nationwide. Nationally chartered CoBank Agricultural Bank (Denver) has the authority to finance U.S. agricultural exports and to provide international banking services to farmer-owned cooperatives.

Bargaining association - A farmer cooperative intended primarily to influence farm prices or other terms of trade between the members and the buyers of the commodities they produce.

Barrows and gilts - A barrow is a young castrated male hog; a gilt is a young female hog. Both are raised for pork. Market news reports of prices paid for "barrows and gilts" are of keen interest to producers and packers alike.

Barter - A form of countertrade in which goods having comparable values are exchanged under a single contract, within a specified period of time, and without any flow of money taking place. The U.S. government ran a barter program from 1950 to 1973, exchanging surplus agricultural commodities for strategic materials and for goods and services it otherwise would have purchased. In addition, barter agreements between the United States and Jamaica were signed in 1982 and 1983.

Base (or contract) acreage - A farm’s crop-specific acreage of wheat, feed grains, upland cotton, or rice eligible to enroll in commodity programs under previous legislation, and subsequently eligible for production flexibility contracts under the FAIR Act of 1996. Base acreage equaled land planted for harvest to the crop, plus any land enrolled in Acreage Reduction Programs, plus land considered planted to the crop in zero, 50/85-92 or under permitted normal flex or optional flex acreage during a specified period of time. A farmer’s crop acreage base was reduced by the portion of land placed in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), but increased by CRP base acreage leaving the CRP.

Base period price - The average price for an item in a specified time period used as a base for an index — such as 1910-14, 1957-59, 1967, 1977, or 1982. Time series of data are often deflated to a base period price. Such deflated time series are referred to as constant dollar values (versus nominal dollar values).

Base property - For the Bureau of Land Management: land or water resources, owned or controlled by a holder of a grazing permit or lease, that are suitable to support livestock for a part of the year. For the Forest Service: lands and improvements owned and used by a permittee for a farm or ranch and designated by the permitted to qualify for a grazing permit. One must own or control base property to be eligible for permits or leases to graze private livestock on federal lands.

Base rates - The minimum cash price for national forest timber to be cut and removed.

Basic commodities - Six agricultural crops (corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco, and wheat) declared by permanent law as requiring federal price support.

Basic formula price (BFP) - Calculated monthly by USDA, the BFP is the base price for all milk regulated by federal milk marketing orders. Currently, the BFP is based on the preceding month’s average price of Grade B milk paid by processors in Minnesota and Wisconsin, adjusted by current-month changes in the value of certain manufactured dairy products.

Basing point - A geographical site used to establish fixed rates and/or prices for federal milk marketing orders. Generally, rates or prices increase according to the distance from the basing point. The FAIR Act of 1996 authorizes USDA to consider the use of multiple basing points for pricing milk under federal milk orders.

Basis - The difference between the current spot price (or cash price) of a commodity and the price of the nearest futures contract for the same or a related commodity. Basis is usually computed in relation to the futures contract next to expire and may reflect different time periods, product forms, qualities, or locations.

Basis risk - The possibility of unexpected variation in basis and a resulting loss of expected revenue when a futures contract is liquidated and the commodity sold on the cash market.

Beef (cattle) price index (BPI) - An index of the weighted average annual price for beef cattle, excluding calves, for a 16 western state area as compared with a specific base period equal to 100. This index is used in calculating federal grazing fees.

Below-cost timber sale - A timber sale from national forest lands in which the expected federal revenues are less than the estimated federal expenses to sell the timber.

Best management practices (BMP's) - A conservation practice or combination of practices designed to maintain agricultural productivity while reducing point- and nonpoint- source water pollution. State water quality agencies (or their designees) determine BMPs to fit local conditions and to make the most efficient use of natural resources and purchased inputs. The term has been defined as generally recognized farmer management practices designed to reduce or prevent contamination of ground water and surface water, erosion, and runoff from cropland, including the use of conservation tillage, no-till, ridge plating, strip tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, irrigation water management, judicious fertilizer application, slow-release fertilizers, soil and tissue testing, and vegetative buffer strips.

BICO Report - The Foreign Agricultural Service’s report of U.S. agricultural export and import data on Bulk, Intermediate, and Consumer-Oriented (BICO). In addition, the data base includes forest products and edible fish and seafood products. These trade data are further classified among 46 separate product groups. Data are available in both calendar and fiscal year format and for 16 world regions and 35 individual country markets. The BICO data can be accessed at.

Bilateral trade agreement - A trade agreement between any two countries. The agreement may be either preferential (the obligations and benefits apply only to the two countries involved) or most-favored-nation (the benefits and obligations negotiated between the two countries are extended to all or most other nations). The U.S.-Israel Free Trade Agreement is one example of a preferential trade agreement.

Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Act of 1996 - P.L. 104-210 (October 1, 1996) was named in honor of the late Congressman who was a champion of efforts to expand food donations to the poor and to protect those who make donations. It converts the Model Good Samaritan Food Donation Act to permanent law and incorporates it into the Child Nutrition Act of 1966 (section 22). Good samaritan laws are designed to encourage the donation of food and groceries to nonprofit charitable agencies by minimizing the risks of legal actions against donors and distributors of foods. The 1996 amendments exclude from civil or criminal liability a person or nonprofit food organization that, in good faith, donates or distributes donated foods for food relief. The new law does not supersede state or local health regulations and its protections do not apply to an injury or death due to gross neglect or intentional misconduct.

Bioaccumulation - The absorption and concentration of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and certain pesticides in plants and animals. Toxicity can be expressed in several ways: lead that is ingested by calves can bioaccumulate in their bones, interfering with calcium absorption and bone development; stored chemicals may be released to the blood stream at a later time, for example, during gestation or weight loss; and chemicals may concentrate to lethal levels at upper ends of the food chain. Bioconcentration is a synonym for biaccumulation.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by natural, biological processes that break down organic matter, such as those that take place when manure or sawdust is put in water. High levels of oxygen-demanding wastes in waters deplete dissolved oxygen (DO) thereby endangering aquatic life. Sometimes referred to as "biological oxygen demand. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the oxygen consumed when organic matter is broken down chemically rather than biologically. COD can be determined much more quickly than BOD and more accurately reflects the amount of organic matter in a water sample. BOD is a standard measure of water quality.

Biodiesel - Biodiesel is registered with the Environmental Protection Agency as a pure fuel or as a fuel additive and is a legal fuel in commerce. It is typically produced through the reaction of a vegetable oil or animal fat with methanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield glycerin and biodiesel (chemically called methyl esters). It is an alternative fuel that can be used by itself or blended with petroleum diesel for use in diesel engines. Its use can result in substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. Provisions of the Energy Conservation Reauthorization Act of 1998 (ECRA, P.L. 105-388) amended the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT, P.L. 102-486) to allow that the use of biodiesel added to conventional diesel at blends of 20% and higher would produce credits to offset up to 50% each year of alternative fuel vehicle acquisition requirements. Farmers and processors anticipate that increased use of biodiesel will strengthen the market for soybean oil.

Biodiversity (or biological diversity) - In general, the variety and variation among plants, animals, and microorganisms, and among their ecosystems. It has 3 levels: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic (within species) diversity. The concept of maintaining biodiversity holds that civilization should preserve the greatest possible number of existing species so that a highly diverse genetic pool, which can be tapped for useful and beneficial characteristics, will be available into the future. Genetic diversity provides resources for genetic resistance to pests and diseases. In agriculture, biodiversity is a production system characterized by the presence of multiple plant and/or animal species, as contrasted with the genetic specialization of monoculture.

Biological control - The practice of using beneficial natural organisms to attack and control harmful plant and animal pests and weeds is called biological control, or biocontrol. This can include introducing predators, parasites, and disease organisms, or releasing sterilized individuals. Biocontrol methods may be an alternative or complement to chemical pest control methods. Biocontrol is part of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service program to control several economically important pests of food and fiber crops; it also is researched and used by other USDA agencies that promote integrated pest management.

Biological monitoring - Using living organisms to test the quality of either effluent to be discharged into receiving waters, or waters downstream from a discharge.

Biologics - Immunization vaccines, bacterins, antigens, and antitoxins and other preparations made from living organisms and their products, intended for use in diagnosing, immunizing, or treating humans or animals, or in related research. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has responsibility for approving some animal biologics. See Veterinary biologics.

Biomagnification (or biological magnification) - The increase in the concentration of bioaccumulated toxic chemicals in organisms higher on the food chain due to preferential storage of the toxic chemical in edible body parts. For example, chlorinated pesticides concentrate in the fat and skin of fish in contaminated lakes and streams and are biomagnified when those fish are eaten by larger fish, and perhaps eventually by mammals or birds of prey.

Biomass - The generic term for any living matter that can be converted into usable energy through biological or chemical processes. It encompasses feedstocks such as agricultural crops and their residues, animal wastes, wood, wood residues and grasses, and municipal wastes.

Biopesticide - A pesticide that is biological in origin (i.e., viruses, bacteria, pheromones, natural plant compounds) in contrast to synthetic chemicals. Transgenic Bt cotton and corn are biopesticides because Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that has been genetically engineered into the plants.

Bio-security; bio-terrorism - "Bio-security" refers to the policies, and measures taken, for protecting a nation’s food supply and agricultural resources from both accidental contamination and deliberate attacks of "bio-terrorism." Now viewed as an emerging threat, bio-terrorism might include such acts as introducing pests intended to kill U.S. food crops; spreading a virulent disease among animal production facilities; and poisoning water, food, and blood supplies. The federal government is now increasing its efforts to improve bio-security because of the recognition that the United States is currently vulnerable, both from a civil and military standpoint.

Biotechnology - The use of technology, based on living systems, to develop processes and products for commercial, scientific or other purposes. These include specific techniques of plant regeneration and gene manipulation and transfer. In the past, producers used cross-hybridization to alter a plant's genetic makeup. With biotechnology, DNA can be altered directly.

Blair House Agreement - The November 1992 agreement between the United States and the European Union on export subsidy and domestic subsidy reduction commitments in the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The agreement also dealt with some bilateral agricultural trade issues.

Blend price - Primarily used in the federal milk marketing order program. Represents the weighted average price of milk, per hundred pounds, paid to each farmer based on how Grade A (fluid grade) milk is allocated to different usage classes (e.g., fluid, manufacturing) by processors.

Blended credit - A federal export promotion program operated from 1983 to 1985 by the Foreign Agricultural Service. Federally guaranteed commercial loans at market interest rates (GSM-102) were combined (blended) with direct export credits (GSM-5) issued by the CCC at zero interest. This subsidized credit was made available to selected countries for a limited number of agricultural commodities. The program was terminated in 1985 when a federal judge determined that commodities shipped under blended credit were subject to cargo preference laws, which would have required that 50% of blended credit exports be shipped on higher-cost U.S. flag vessels.

Blending - In grain marketing, the combining of two different qualities of grain in order to change the total value of both lots. For example, it is common to blend grains of differing moisture or different foreign material content to achieve the requirements of a contract order.

Blue box policies - Direct payments, under the definition of "production-limiting" measures as defined in Article 6 of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, that are not subject to the commitment to reduce domestic support. To qualify for the exemption, payments must be based on fixed areas or yields, on a fixed number of livestock, or on 85% or less of the base level of production. See green box.

Board foot - A measure for lumber, equal to a 1-inch thick board that is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide in nominal dimensions (a 2x4, for example, is less than 2 inches thick and 4 inches wide, but a 1-foot long 2x4 is still counted as 2/3 of a board foot); typically reported in thousands of board feet (mbf). Also used to estimate the volume of lumber that can be produced from logs and standing trees.

Boll weevil - An insect pest of cotton that is the subject of an Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service eradication program cooperatively funded and managed by cotton producers.

Bonus commodities - From the agricultural perspective, these are commodities donated to domestic feeding programs that USDA acquires for unexpected surplus removal reasons or because Commodity Credit Corporation holdings are not needed for other purposes, or are in danger of waste or spoilage. For example, if meat prices fall, USDA may buy beef and donate it to the National School Lunch Program, or if the CCC is holding an excess of cornmeal that is in danger of spoiling, it might donate this to the lunch program. From the food program perspective, these commodities are those donated in addition to the commodities that must be provided under mandatory requirements in food program statutes.

Botanical pesticides - Pesticides whose active ingredients are plant-produced chemicals such as nicotine, rotenone, or strychnine. Also called plant-derived pesticides. Being "natural" pesticides, as distinct from synthetic ones, they are typically acceptable to organic farmers.

Bottom - Usually synonymous with "vessel" or "ship." A ship of American registry may be referred to as a "U.S. bottom," whereas if registry is other than U.S., the ship, in U.S. usage, may be called a "foreign bottom."

Bound tariff rates - Tariff rates resulting from GATT negotiations or accessions that are incorporated as part of a country's schedule of concessions. Bound rates are enforceable under Article II of GATT. If a GATT contracting party raises a tariff above the bound rate, the affected countries have the right to retaliate against an equivalent value of the offending country's exports or receive compensation, usually in the form of reduced tariffs on other products they export to the offending country.

Bovine Somatotropin (bST) - Also called bovine growth hormone, bST is a naturally occurring protein that has been genetically engineered as a synthetic compound (now manufactured in large quantities and commercially available to farmers) that causes cows to increase the efficiency of milk production per unit of feed consumed. Its use has caused public controversy, and some states require retail dairy product labels to identify the use of synthetic bST.

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) - Commonly known as "mad cow disease," BSE is a slowly progressive, incurable disease affecting the central nervous system of cattle, first diagnosed in Britain in 1986. Consumption by cattle of BSE-contaminated ruminant proteins in animal feed has been cited as one possible means of transmission. Scientists have confirmed a link between BSE in cattle and several dozen recent European cases of a human variant of BSE, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease. More than 77,000 cattle suspected of having been exposed to the disease have been slaughtered in Great Britain, and a ban on ruminant protein-containing feeds was imposed in 1988. To date, no BSE has been found in U.S. cattle, although other BSE-like animal diseases are found in the United States, including scrapie in sheep and goats. USDA banned the importation of live cattle from Great Britain in 1989, and imposed a partial ban on using ruminant protein in animal feed in 1997.

Bovine tuberculosis - A highly contagious disease of cattle that causes severe economic losses, especially in dairy herds. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service quarantines infected herds and works with producers to eradicate the disease. The target date for total eradication has been pushed back from 1998 to after the year 2000.

Boxed beef - Beef that a packer cuts into relatively small pieces, seals in vacuum packs, and ships in cardboard boxes, often ready for retail sale. Prior to the 1970s, most beef left the packer as partial carcasses.

Breastfeeding promotion - Relates to activities required to be carried out by state and local agencies using federal funds provided for nutrition education and administrative services under the WIC program. States are required to use a portion of funds they receive to promote breastfeeding by postpartum mothers participating in the program.

Broadcast application - The spreading of pesticides or fertilizers over an entire area (see band application).

Broiler - A young chicken, usually 6 to 8 weeks old and 3 to 5 pounds, raised primarily for its meat.

Brucellosis - A highly contagious disease of cattle, goats, sheep, and swine that can be transmitted to humans (undulant fever). The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service conducts an eradication program that is expected to eliminate brucellosis from U.S. cattle herds by the end of 1999.

Bt - Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally occurring soil bacterium commonly known as Bt. It is a biological pesticide (biopesticide) used as a spray or dust and also in several genetically engineered plants. The plants have a gene from Bt inserted into their own genetic material. This new gene produces a natural protein that kills insects after the protein is ingested. The toxins are specific to a small subset of insects. Cotton has been genetically altered to control the tobacco budworm, bollworm and pink bollworm. Potatoes have been altered to control the Colorado potato beetle. A new hybrid of Bt corn, altered to be resistant to the European corn borer, became available for the 1997 planting season. Bt degrades rapidly to non-toxic compounds. It is not known to present any human or animal hazards. However, recent reports suggest that it may harm certain beneficial insects, such as monarch butterflies. Pest resistance management (PRM) plans are required by the Environmental Protection Agency as part of the registration.

Buffer strips - Slender areas of permanent vegetation, often planted along the edge or the contour of a field, usually to slow the flow of water or the velocity of wind, in order to capture sediment and other materials before they leave the farm and become pollutants. Types of buffers include filter strips, field borders, grassed waterways, field windbreaks, shelterbelts, contour grass strips, and riparian buffers.

Bulgur - Wheat that has been parboiled, dried, and partially debranned for later use in cracked or whole grain form.

Bulk carrier - Refers to two types of cargo ships: the dry-bulk carrier and the liquid-bulk carrier, better known as a tanker. Bulk cargo is a shipment such as oil, grain, or ore, that is not packaged, baled, bottled, or otherwise packed and is loaded without counting or marking.

Bulk commodities - Generally, high volume, low value unprocessed agricultural commodities, which are treated as though they are homogeneous (fungible) in nature prior to processing. Grains, oilseeds, and cotton are considered bulk commodities. Contrasting categories are high value commodities, semiprocessed and processed commodities, and consumer ready commodities.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) - A bureau within the Department of the Interior that has exclusive jurisdiction over about 268 million acres of federally owned lands. Approximately one-third of this area is in Alaska. The majority of the remaining acreage is in the Western States.

Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) - A bureau within the Department of the Interior, whose mission is to manage, develop, and protect water and related resources. The agency replaced the Reclamation Service, which was established pursuant to the Reclamation Act of 1902 to "reclaim (arid lands) throughout the West through irrigation." The Bureau built, operates, and maintains more than 300 storage dams on rivers throughout the western United States.

Burley tobacco - The main type of air-cured tobacco; a cigarette tobacco that together with flue-cured tobacco account for more than 90% of total U.S. production. Burley tobacco production is limited by national marketing quotas and eligible for nonrecourse price support loans. Its production centers in Kentucky.

Bushel - A dry volume measure of varying weight for grain, fruit, etc., equal to four pecks or eight gallons (2150.42 cubic inches). A bushel of wheat, soybeans, and white potatoes each weighs 60 pounds. A bushel of corn, rye, grain sorghum, and flaxseed each weighs 56 pounds. A bushel of barley, buckwheat, and apples each weighs 48 pounds.

Business incubator - A facility that supports the development and operation of a number of small start-up businesses. Tenants of the facility share a number of support services including computers, support staff, telecommunications equipment, and janitorial services. Occupants also may receive technical assistance, business planning, legal, financial, and marketing advice.

Buybacks - Additional peanuts that are allowed to be bought back and used like quota peanuts in the domestic edible market when there are not enough peanuts available to meet the national poundage quota. A buyback is a marketing transaction in which a grower places additional peanuts under loan at the additional loan rate and a handler simultaneously purchases such peanuts from the area marketing association for seed or other domestic use. The buyback mechanism not only provides peanuts to overcome government induced shortages, it provides a means for quota holders to make more money.

Bycatch - Fish or other sea creatures caught unintentionally during commercial fishing operations.

Cabotage - Trade or transport in coastal waters between ports within the same country. U.S. "cabotage" legislation—notably the so-called Jones Act — is designed to support the maritime industry.

Cairns Group - An informal association of 15 agricultural exporting countries formed in 1986 at Cairns, Australia. During the Uruguay Round this group sought the removal of trade barriers and substantial reductions in subsidies affecting agricultural trade. These goals were in response to depressed commodity prices and reduced export earnings stemming from subsidy wars between the U.S. and the EU. The members account for a significant portion of the world's agricultural exports. The group includes major food exporters from both developed and developing countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, the Philippines, South Africa Thailand, and Uruguay. The Cairns Group was a strong coalition in the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations.

Call option - A contract that entitles the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to purchase an underlying futures contract at a stipulated basis or strike price at any time up to the expiration of the option. The buyer pays a premium to the seller for this contract. A call option is bought with the expectation of a rise in prices. See put option.

Campylobacteriosis - A diarrheal disease often caused by the type of bacteria known as Campylobacteria jejuni (C. jejuni) associated with poultry, raw milk, and water. There are an estimated 2.5 million cases annually in the United States with 200 to 730 deaths. Campylobacteriosis has been linked to Guillain-Barre syndrome (a disease which paralyzes limbs and breathing muscles) as well as Epstein-Barr, Cytomegalovirus, and other viruses. USDA has estimated that this disease costs the United States between $1.2 to $1.4 billion annually in medical costs, productivity losses, and residential care.

Cancellation - Refers to an action taken under Section 6(b) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to cancel a pesticide registration for one or more specific uses when the Environmental Protection Agency finds the use results in unreasonable adverse effects to the environment or public health when a product is used according to widespread and commonly recognized practice, or if its labeling or other material required to be submitted does not comply with FIFRA provisions.

Capper-Volstead Act - P.L. 67-146 (February 18, 1922), with a bit of exaggeration, is sometimes called the Magna Carta of Cooperation. The law was passed in response to challenges made against cooperatives using the Sherman Antitrust Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, and the Federal Trade Commission Act. It gave "associations" of persons producing agricultural products certain exemptions from antitrust laws. The law carries the names of its sponsors, Senator Arthur Capper of Kansas and Congressman Andrew Volstead of Minnesota.

Captive supply - Products that manufacturers or processors own or contract to purchase for future delivery so as to have a predictable source of raw materials for their plants. In agriculture, the term often is used, for example, to refer to the cattle that beef packers own or contract to purchase 2 weeks or more before slaughter. Examples of such contracts include an exclusive agreement with an individual feedlot in which the price is based on market prices at time of slaughter; or a contract in which the price is specified in advance or is based on some other formula. At issue is the effect that captive supplies have on prices paid to cattle producers.

Carbon sequestration - Retention of carbon in ways that prevent or delay its emission to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This may help mitigate climate change by reducing the amount in the atmosphere. Silvicultural practices that encourage rapid, long term tree growth are an example. Crop residue retention practices designed to prevent erosion and improve the productivity of soil, such as conservation tillage, also retain larger amounts of carbon compared to many traditional cultivation practices.

Carcass weight - The weight of an animal after slaughter and removal of most internal organs, head, and skin. On average, a beef carcass is about 60% of the weight of the live animal, for hogs it is about 73%.

Carcass-by-carcass inspection - Usually refers to language in the federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products Inspection Act, respectively, that requires the Food Safety Inspection Service to inspect the carcass of each animal killed for human food, immediately after slaughter.

Carcinogen - Any substance that produces or promotes cancer. This is a key consideration in evaluating the safety of pesticides and other chemicals.

Cargo preference - The Cargo Preference Act (P.L. 83-664) requires that whenever the federal government pays for equipment, material, or commodities shipped to other countries, a minimum percentage of the gross tonnage shipped by sea must go by U.S. flag vessels. Cargo preference requirements have been an issue in U.S. international food aid and export subsidy programs.

Cargo Preference Act - P.L. 83-644 (August 26, 1954), as amended, contains permanent legislation concerning the transportation of waterborne cargoes in U.S.-flag vessels. The Act requires that 75% of the volume of U.S. agricultural commodities financed under P.L. 480 and other concessional financing arrangements be shipped on privately owned U.S.-registered vessels. Maritime interests generally support cargo preference, but proponents of P.L. 480 argue that it increases the costs of shipping U.S. commodities to poor countries and potentially reduces the volume of food aid that is provided.

Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 (CBERA) - P.L. 98-67 (August 5, 1983), Title II, authorized unilateral preferential trade and tax benefits for eligible Caribbean countries, including duty-free treatment of eligible products. This law is commonly referred to as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). Amended several times, the last substantive revisions were made in the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Expansion Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-382, Title II, August 20, 1990). This made trade benefits permanent (repealing the September 30, 1995 termination date).

Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) - A permanent program designed to increase private investment, trade, and tourism in Caribbean countries, initially created by the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 and amended several times. It gives preferential trade and tax benefits for eligible Caribbean countries, including duty-free entry of eligible products. To be eligible, an article must be a "product" of (as defined in the U.S. general rules of origin) a beneficiary country and imported directly from it, and at least 35% of its import value must have originated in one or more CBERA beneficiaries. Slightly different import value rules apply to articles entering from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The duty-free import of sugar and beef products is subject to a special eligibility requirement that a beneficiary country submit and carry out a stable food production plan ensuring that increased production of sugar and beef will not adversely affect overall food production. Preferential tariff treatment, though, does not extend to imports of: textiles and apparel subject to textile agreements, specified footwear, canned tuna, petroleum and its products, and watches and watch parts containing any material originating in countries denied most-favored-nation trade status. Special criteria apply to the duty-free import of ethanol through FY2000. Import-sensitive products, not accorded duty-free tariff treatment, are eligible to enter at lower than most-favored-nation tariff rates. These products include handbags, luggage, flat goods (such as wallets, change purses, and key and eyeglass cases), work gloves, and certain leather wearing apparel.

Carrier - An inert material added to an active ingredient in a pesticide to enhance its delivery or effectiveness.

Carrying capacity - The maximum stocking rate for livestock possible without damaging vegetation or related resources. Carrying capacity may vary from year to year on the same area, due to fluctuating forage production. Used by the government in decisions about how many livestock will be allowed on an allotment on public lands.

Carryover - Existing supplies of farm commodity not used at the end of a marketing year, and remaining to be carried over into the next year. Marketing years generally start at the beginning of a new harvest for a commodity, and extend to the same time in the following year.

Cartel - An alliance or arrangement among industrial or commercial enterprises or nations aimed at limiting competition or exercising monopoly power in a market.

Casein - The major portion of milk protein, manufactured from skim milk and used in processed foods (such as dessert toppings and coffee whiteners) and in industrial products such as glue, paint and plastics.

Cash commodity - The physical or actual commodity as distinguished from the futures contract. Sometimes called spot commodity, or actuals.

Cash grain farm - A farm on which corn, grain sorghum, small grains, soybeans, or field beans and peas account for at least 50 percent of value of products sold

Cash in lieu of commodities - Refers to cash provided to food program operators (e.g., elderly nutrition programs, child care food programs, and some school food programs) in lieu of mandated commodity assistance. Recipients may use the cash to buy whatever foods they need to operate their meal service programs.

Cash market - The market for the cash commodity (as contrasted to a futures contract), taking the form of — (1) an organized, self-regulated central market (e.g., a commodity exchange); (2) a decentralized over-the-counter market; or (3) a local organization, such as a grain elevator or meat processor, which provides a market for a small region.

Cash price - The price in the marketplace for actual cash or spot commodities to be delivered via customary market channels.

Cash settlement - A method of settling certain futures contracts or option contracts whereby the seller (or short position) pays the buyer (or long position) the cash value of the commodity traded according to a procedure specified in the contract.

Catastrophic crop insurance (CAT) - A component of the federal crop insurance program, authorized by the Federal Crop Insurance Reform Act of 1994, that compensates farmers for crop yield losses exceeding 50% of their average historical yield at a payment rate of 60% of the projected season average market price. CAT coverage requires that a farmer realize a yield loss of more than 50% and only makes payments on losses exceeding the 50-percent threshold. Producers pay no premium for CAT coverage, but except for cases of financial hardship must pay an administrative fee of $50 per crop, up to a maximum of $200 per county and $600 in total (across all counties) for CAT protection. Under the Reform Act of 1994 producers were required to obtain coverage at the CAT (or higher) level for crops of economic significance (accounting for 10% or more of their farm’s crop production value) in order to be eligible for various other USDA program benefits. The FAIR Act of 1996 relaxed this requirement. A producer has the ability to purchase additional insurance coverage beyond CAT coverage, but must pay a premium, partially subsidized by the government, for that additional coverage.

Cattle cycle - The approximately 10-year period in which the number of U.S. beef cattle is alternatively expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by producers. Generally, low prices occur when cattle numbers (or beef supplies) are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation. As cattle numbers decline, prices gradually begin to rise, causing cattle producers to begin adding cattle to their herds. The cycle is relatively long due to the long period of time it takes between the time a cow-calf operator decides to expand a cow herd to breed more beef cattle and the time those animals reach slaughter weight.

Census of Agriculture - A comprehensive set of quantitative information on the agricultural sector of the U.S. economy, broken down to the state and county levels (i.e., number of farms, land in farms, crop acreage and production, livestock numbers and production, production expenses, farm facilities and equipment, farm tenure, value of farm products sold, farm size, type of farm, among other data). The Census, conducted every 5 years, was the responsibility of the Commerce Department’s Bureau of the Census. However, the FY1997 USDA appropriations act (P.L. 104-180, August 6, 1996) transferred funding for the Census of Agriculture to USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). NASS released the results of the 1997 Census in 1998.

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) - The agency within the Food and Drug Administration responsible for developing and overseeing enforcement of food safety and quality regulations and coordinating FDA and states’ surveillance and compliance programs, among other activities. FDA’s roughly 800 field inspectors (located administratively within FDA’s Office of Regulatory Affairs) enforce CFSAN’s food safety regulations at 53,000 processing facilities. CFSN announced that its food safety priorities for 1999 include stepping up surveillance of imported fruits and vegetables, investigating the risk of Listeria, swiftly approving additives that can safeguard the nation’s food supply and adopting HACCP rules for manufacturers of fruit juices, seafood and shell eggs.

Center for Veterinary Medicine - An agency within the Food and Drug Administration that is responsible for assuring that all animal drugs, feeds (including pet foods), and veterinary devices are safe for animals, are properly labeled, and produce no human health hazards when used in food-producing animals.

Center pivot irrigation - A self-propelled irrigation system in which a single pipeline supported on towers rotates around a central point. These systems are typically about one-quarter mile long and serve 128 to 132 acre circular fields.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention - An agency within the Food and Drug Administration that monitors and investigates food borne disease outbreaks and compiles baseline data against which to measure the success of changes in food safety programs.

Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC) - A term for the group of countries including Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic, and the three Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).

Certificates (commodity) - Legal instruments, entitling a qualified bearer to a specific dollar value of USDA surplus commodities. Payment-in-kind (PIK) "certs" either can specify the types of commodities or be generic. Certificates were heavily used during the 1980s as a means of meeting financial obligations and simultaneously disposing of CCC-owned commodities.

Channelization - Engineering watercourses by straightening, widening, or deepening them so water will move faster. While improving drainage, this process can interfere with waste assimilation capacity, disturb fish and wildlife habitats, and aggravate flooding in other areas.

Check-off program - Usually, a reference to the generic research and commodity promotion programs for farm products that are financed by assessments applied to sales of those products by producers, importers, or others in the industry.

Chemigation - The application of a pesticide and/or fertilizer through any irrigation system. This delivery technique raises some concern that it may increase pollution.

Chemosterilant - A chemical that controls pests by preventing reproduction, thereby causing the population to collapse. This contrasts with chemicals that directly kill pests.

Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) - This child nutrition program provides cash and commodity assistance to support meal service programs in child care centers, headstart facilities, outside of school programs, and family and group home day care homes for children, the elderly, and disabled. It is permanently authorized under Section 17 of the National School Lunch Act, administered by the Food and Nutrition Service, and funded annually by agricultural appropriations.

Child Nutrition Act of 1966 - P.L. 89-642 (October 11, 1966) was an anti-hunger initiative begun by the Johnson Administration as part of its "War on Poverty" and has been amended numerous times since then. It permanently authorizes the special milk program and the school breakfast program. The special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children (WIC), which provides federal grant funds to states for monthly food packages and nutrition education for low-income mothers and young children, is authorized under this Act through FY2003, as is federal spending for state administrative expenses (SAE) associated with the operation of child nutrition meal service programs and the nutrition education and training (NET) program.

Child nutrition programs - A grouping of programs funded by the federal government to support meal and milk service programs for children in schools, residential and day care facilities, family and group day care homes, and summer day camps, and for low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants, and children under age 5 in local WIC clinics. Programs include school lunch, school breakfast, summer food service, special milk, commodity distribution, nutrition education and training program, and the special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants and children (WIC). These programs are authorized under the National School Lunch Act and the Child Nutrition Act of 1966; are financed by annual agricultural appropriations laws; and are administered by the Food and Consumer Service of USDA. Changes to the authorizing statutes generally are made by the Agriculture Nutrition and Forestry Committee in the Senate. In the House, the Education and the Workforce Committee deals with most changes to child nutrition program authorizing statutes, although the Agriculture Committee usually is involved when proposed changes concern commodity distribution, food issues, and requirements affecting agricultural interests and the farmers market nutrition program.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons - Also known as organochlorines, these synthetic organic compounds contain chlorine. They tend to be persistent in the environment and to biomagnify in the food chain. Chlorinated hydrocarbons that are pesticides include DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, lindane, endrin, mirex, hexachloride, and toxaphene. Most chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide uses have been canceled because of their persistence, propensity to bioaccumulate, and toxicity to nontarget species.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides - A class of pesticides that includes 2,4-D. They mimic plant hormones. Uses of some have been canceled because of concerns about adverse health effects.

Cholinesterase inhibitors - A class of chemicals that includes numerous insecticides, such as parathion or carbaryl. They inhibit an enzyme found in animals that regulates nerve impulses. Cholinesterase inhibition is associated with a variety of acute symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, stomach cramps, and rapid heart rate.

Chronic Hunger - Long-term hunger caused by endemic problems of availability and access, rather than by temporary emergencies.

Chronic toxicity - The capacity of a substance to cause long-term or delayed adverse health effects. For example, a cancer resulting from exposure to a carcinogen may not appear for years or decades.

Citizen suits - Refers to the provisions often found in environmental laws which authorize any citizen to bring a lawsuit to enforce the provisions of an environmental law.

Class I differential - Under federal milk marketing orders, the minimum price a processor must pay for milk used for fluid consumption (Class I milk) is the basic formula price plus the Class I differential. The Class I differential varies by about $3.00 per hundredweight (cwt.) between the Upper Midwest and Southeast Florida. The Class I differential accounts for the costs of transporting milk, the added costs of marketing milk going into fluid milk products, and the higher cost of producing Grade A milk required for fluid products.

Class I equivalency - The amount of less productive land in a water district receiving Bureau of Reclamation water (Classes 2, 3, and 4) that would be necessary to be equivalent in productive potential to Class I land. This equivalency rating is made to adjust the number of acres that may be irrigated (see acreage limitation) so that less productive lands are equivalent in productive potential to 960 acres of Class I land.

Class I land - Under reclamation law, Class I land is defined as irrigable land within a particular agricultural economic setting that is productive enough to yield the highest level of suitability for continuous, successful irrigation farming, and has the highest relative productive potential as measured in net income per acre.

Class I Railroad - Any railroad with annual gross revenues of at least $250 million (in 1991), according to the U.S. Department of Transportation. These are the largest long-distance U.S. railroad systems such as Union Pacific-Southern Pacific, Norfolk Southern, CSX, and Burlington Northern-Santa Fe, which own most of the track in the United States. Since passage of the Staggers Rail Act of 1980, aimed at deregulating the once highly-regulated industry to make it more efficient and cost-competitive, the number of Class I railroads has declined through consolidations and mergers, from more than 30, to eight in 1998. This consolidation has concerned many agricultural shippers—particularly those who lack access to nearby markets or to water transportation—fearful of higher prices due to lack of competition.

Classified pricing - The pricing system of federal milk marketing orders, under which milk processors pay into a pool for fluid grade (Grade A) milk; its value is based on how the milk ultimately is used. Milk used for fluid (Class I) consumption receives a higher price than milk for processed (Class II, Class III, Class IIIa) dairy products.

Clayton Act - A 1914 law that supplemented the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 by clarifying market activities (including those in agriculture) considered to be monopolistic or trade-restraining. The Capper-Volstead Act later exempted agricultural cooperatives from certain Clayton and Sherman Act provisions.

Clean Air Act - The primary federal law governing efforts to control air pollution. Federal legislation addressing air pollution was first adopted in 1955 (Air Pollution Control Act, P.L. 84-159) to provide research and technical assistance. Subsequent amendments, most notably the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 (P.L. 91-604), 1977 (P.L. 95-95), and 1990 (P.L. 101-549), strengthened the federal role. The Clean Air Act seeks to protect human health and the environment from emissions that pollute the air. The Environmental Protection Agency is required to establish minimum National Standards Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), while states are assigned primary responsibility for developing compliance. Areas not meeting the standards (nonattainment areas) are required to implement specific control measures. There is no direct federal regulation of agriculture under the Clean Air Act. Two of the NAAQS (for particulates and ozone) could affect agriculture: particulates, because certain agricultural practices, such as prescribed burning and tilling, create airborne particles that might be targeted for control in State Implementation Plans; and ozone, because concentrations of ozone above the standard can adversely affect crop yields. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (from manufacturing, transportation, and utilities) react in the presence of sunlight (agriculture rarely if ever represents significant sources of ozone precursors).

Clean Water Act - Refers collectively to the main federal law for protecting water quality [33 U.S.C. §§1251 to 1387]. This is the principal law governing pollution of the nation’s rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. Originally enacted in 1948 as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (P.L. 80-845), it was totally revised by amendments in 1972 that gave the Act its current name and shape (P.L. 92-500). The objective of the Act is the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters. The Act is implemented by the Environmental Protection Agency in partnership with state and local governments. Programs in the Act have been primarily directed at managing point source pollution (wastes discharged from industrial facilities, sewage treatment plants, and municipal storm sewer systems). Agricultural activities have been less of a focus, but some may be affected by the Clean Water Act. The act established the NPDES system for pollution permits and the nonpoint source provisions of §§208 and 319 which deal with agricultural runoff. Large confined animal feeding operations are treated like industrial sources and are subject to permit requirements. Programs to manage nonpoint source pollution (rainfall runoff from farms, rangelands, forests, etc.) may affect agriculture. However, irrigation return flows are specifically exempt from regulation. A program in the Act that regulates discharges of dredged and fill material into wetlands (Section 404) requires permits for activities on agricultural wetlands.

Coastal Zone Management Program - P.L. 92-583 (October 27, 1972) created the Coastal Zone Management Program in 1972 to provide grants to eligible states and territories as an incentive to prepare and implement plans guiding the use of coastal lands and resources. Amendments in 1990 require participants to develop nonpoint pollution programs. These programs must specify and implement management measures to restore and protect coastal waters. For agriculture, management measures are specified for erosion, sediments, nutrients, pesticides, grazing, and animal waste. Participants must implement these management measures after they have been approved by whatever means necessary, including regulation. Federal approval of state proposals is pending.

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) - The codification of the general and permanent rules published in the Federal Register by the Executive departments and agencies of the federal government. The Code is divided into 50 titles that represent broad areas subject to regulation. Most regulations directly related to agriculture are in title 7. Each title is divided into chapters that usually bear the name of the issuing agency, followed by subdivisions into parts covering specific regulatory areas. For example, 7 CFR 1410 are the regulations that apply to the Conservation Reserve Program.

Codex Alimentarius Commission - A joint commission of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization, comprised of some 146 member countries, created in 1962 to ensure consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade, and promote the development of international food standards. The Commission drafts nonbinding standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residues, and other substances that affect consumer food safety. It publishes these standards in a listing called the "Codex Alimentarius."

Coliform index - A rating of the purity of water based on a count of fecal coliform bacteria. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria, which are harmless bacteria that live in the intestines of humans and other vertebrate animals, indicates contamination by human or animal feces, and hence the potential presence of disease pathogens.

Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) - Created by a 1975 amendment, Title XII, to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, the CRSP is a long-term mechanism to encourage and support collaborative research efforts in the areas of international food and agriculture among U.S. Land Grant Universities and developing country National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), International Agricultural Research Centers, agribusiness, private voluntary organizations (PVOs), academic institutions, private agencies, USAID, and other U.S. Federal agencies. CRSP research is intended to benefit both U.S. and host countries and to strengthen the agricultural sector of developing countries to promote economic growth.

Colonia - A substandard housing area defined in the Housing Act of 1949 as any identifiable community that: (1) is in the states of Arizona, California, New Mexico, or Texas; (2) is in an area that is within 150 miles of the border between the United States and Mexico (except for standard metropolitan statistical areas that have a population exceeding 1 million); (3) is designated by the state or county as a colonia; and (4) is determined to be a colonia based on criteria such as lack of potable water supply, lack of adequate sewage systems, and lack of decent, safe, and sanitary housing.

Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act - P.L. 93-320 (June 24, 1974), and the laws authorizing three other conservation cost-sharing programs, were repealed in the FAIR Act of 1996 and replaced by a new cost-sharing program, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Until it was replaced, the Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Program provided cost-sharing assistance to producers to install on-farm irrigation system improvements to prevent irrigation water heavily charged with salts and minerals from reentering the river. Participating farmers received up to 70% of total project costs and technical assistance. Participation was concentrated at sites where problems existed. This program was available to producers in the seven states of the Colorado River watershed. The law was administered by the Farm Service Agency until FY1996, when administration was transferred to the Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Program - This program was authorized in the Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act and was repealed and replaced by the Environmental Quality Incentives Program in the FAIR Act of 1996. Administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, it is used to implement salinity control measures, primarily to manage irrigation water using financial and technical assistance to landowners. This program supports U.S. efforts to meet international treaty obligations for downstream water quality in Mexico.

Combine - A self-propelled machine for harvesting grain and other seed crops. In one operation, it cuts, threshes, separates, and cleans the grain and scatters the straw.

Commission on 21st Century Production Agriculture - An 11-member panel authorized by Title I-G of the FAIR Act (P.L. 104-127) to conduct a comprehensive review of the farm economy, including the impact of the 1996 law; and a follow-up review that must include recommendations for changes in federal agricultural policy. The commission submitted its initial review to Congress in May 1999; the second report is due on January 1, 2001.

Commodity Assistance Program - A title often used to refer to a variety of domestic programs receiving food in the form of USDA supplied commodities. It was formalized in FY1996 appropriations law (P.L. 104-37, October 21, 1995) for the first time to refer to the consolidation for funding purposes of three commodity donation programs that are authorized under two separate statutes: the Emergency Food Assistance Program (EFAP), Soup Kitchen-Food Bank Program, and the Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP).

Commodity certificates - Payments issued by the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) in lieu of cash payments to participants in farm subsidy or agricultural export programs. Holders of certificates are permitted to exchange them for commodities owned by the CCC. Certificates were used not only to compensate program beneficiaries but also to reduce the large, costly, and price-depressing commodity surpluses held by the CCC during the mid-1980s.

Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) - A wholly owned government corporation created in 1933 to stabilize, support, and protect farm income and prices (federally chartered by the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act of 1948 (P.L. 80-806, June 29, 1948)). The CCC, which has no staff, is essentially a financing institution for USDA’s farm price and income support commodity programs, and agricultural export subsidies. It is authorized to buy, sell, lend, make payments and engage in other activities for the purpose of increasing production, stabilizing prices, assuring adequate supplies, and facilitating the efficient marketing of agricultural commodities. The FAIR Act of 1996 expanded the CCC mandate to include funding for several conservation programs (including the Conservation Reserve Program) and made conservation one of the purposes of the CCC. The programs funded through CCC are administered by employees of the Farm Service Agency. The CCC has the authority to borrow up to $30 billion from the U.S. Treasury to carry out its obligations. Net losses on financial operations subsequently are restored through the congressional appropriations process.

Commodity distribution - Direct donation of food products by the federal government to needy persons, schools, and institutions. Commodities are either entitlement or bonus. Bonus commodities can be received when they are available from surplus stocks purchased by the Commodity Credit Corporation under its price support program or the Agricultural Marketing Service under its surplus removal program (Section 32 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1935).

Commodity Distribution Program - This program supplies authority for the Secretary of Agriculture to use agricultural surplus removal (Section 32) and Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) funds to buy commodities for child and elderly nutrition programs. The Secretary is directed to use Section 32 funds not needed for other purposes and CCC funds (if stocks are not available) to buy commodities for donation to maintain the annually programmed level of commodity assistance for Child and Elderly Nutrition programs. The program is authorized through FY2003 under Section 14 of the National School Lunch Act (NSLA).

Commodity Distribution Reform Act and WIC Amendments of 1987 - P.L. 100-237 (January 8, 1988) established a free-standing law requiring the USDA to improve the distribution and quality of commodities donated to child nutrition programs. Also established a foodbank demonstration project making use of Section 32 agricultural surplus commodities, amended the National School Lunch Act to permit certain pilot projects receiving cash in lieu of commodities or commodity letters of credit to continue receiving them, and amended the Child Nutrition Act of 1966 to make a variety of changes to the WIC program to expand coordination with other programs, conduct studies, and convert certain food funding to use for administrative costs.

Commodity exchange - An organization operating under a set of bylaws aimed at promoting trade in one or more commodities by providing services and rules for the conduct of trade.

Commodity Exchange Authority - A former regulatory agency of USDA established to administer the Commodity Exchange Act prior to 1975; the predecessor of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) - The independent federal regulatory agency established by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission Act of 1974 to administer the Commodity Exchange Act. It regulates trading on the futures exchanges in the United States. The CFTC also regulates the activities of numerous commodity exchange members, public brokerage houses, commodity trading advisors, and commodity pool operators.

Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) Act of 1974 - P.L. 93-463 (October 23, 1974) created the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, to replace the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Commodity Exchange Authority, as the independent federal agency responsible for regulating the futures trading industry. The Act made extensive changes in the basic authority of Commodity Exchange Act of 1936, which itself had made extensive changes in the original Grain Futures Act of 1923.

Commodity Import Programs (CIPs) - The U.S. Agency for International Development uses a small portion of U.S. foreign aid funds to make grants and loans to countries judged important to U.S. foreign policy objectives. These CIPs, by making dollars available, help these countries finance purchases of U.S. commodities (including agricultural commodities) or other inputs needed to meet their development objectives and also provide balance-of-payments support to countries with very limited foreign exchange.

Commodity letters of credit (CLOC) - Food instruments issued in lieu of commodities to certain designated schools participating in the National School Lunch Program. These letters of credit specify the types of foods that schools must buy, which are the same types of foods being donated to other schools by USDA under the commodity distribution program.

Commodity loan rates - Price per unit (pound, bushel, bale, or hundredweight) at which the CCC provides nonrecourse loans to farmers to enable them to hold program crops for later sale. Commodity loans under the FAIR Act of 1996 are recourse for sugar in years that imports are below 1.5 million short tons, and will become recourse for dairy in 2000.

Commodity programs - This term is usually meant to include the commodity price and income support programs administered by the Farm Service Agency and financed by the Commodity Credit Corporation. The commodities now receiving support are: (1) those included in the production flexibility contract payments program, specifically wheat, feed grains, cotton, and rice; (2) those eligible for nonrecourse marketing assistance loans, soybeans and minor oilseeds; (3) those under marketing quota limits, peanuts and tobacco; (4) sugar and milk. A broader term that includes these programs and others is farm programs.

Commodity promotion programs - Programs that advertise and promote an agricultural commodity or product without reference to the specific farmer, brand name, or manufacturer. Producers can and do organize voluntary commodity promotion programs, but most are operated under the authority of either federal or state laws, frequently with the objective of requiring that all members of the industry participate. At the federal level, the programs are authorized by law, implemented by industry groups (after USDA review, rulemaking and approval), and financed by assessments (also called check-offs) of industry members such as producers, importers, and/or handlers. In the past, Congress enacted separate laws permitting producers of specifically-designated commodities to create such programs. The FAIR Act of 1996 also gives USDA general authority to create programs for any commodity at the request of a group of producers. In early 1999, 12 federal promotion programs were fully operational: beef, cotton, dairy products, eggs, fluid milk, honey, mushrooms, popcorn, pork, potatoes, soybeans, and watermelon. In addition to the federally authorized programs, there are between 300 and 350 state-legislated promotion programs covering about 80 farm commodities. Nine out of ten U.S. farmers contribute to one or more of these efforts, which, collectively, raise and spend hundreds of millions of dollars annually.

Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP) - The CSFP provides funding for monthly food packages consisting of USDA commodities (juice, egg mix, and canned fruits and vegetables), and administrative funding for local agencies serving low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants, children up to age 6, and persons 60 years of age or older. The precursor of the WIC program, the CSFP now operates in 81 project areas located in 20 states, and over one-half of the beneficiaries are elderly. CSFP is authorized through FY2002 under the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973, as amended by the FAIR Act of 1996.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) - The set of legislation and practices jointly adopted by the nations of the European Union (EU) in order to provide a common, unified policy framework for agriculture. Its stated purposes are to increase farm productivity, stabilize markets, ensure a fair standard of living for farmers, guarantee regular supplies, and ensure reasonable prices for consumers. The CAP rests upon four basic principles: common import restrictions, common financing, common pricing, and common treatment of surpluses.

Common external tariff (CXT) - A tariff rate applied by a regional grouping of countries as a unit. For example, the European Community allows free trade in most agricultural commodities among member countries, but applies common external tariffs against many farm products imported from non-member or "third" countries.

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) - A formal association of states comprising the republics formed out of the former Soviet Union, with the exception of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Included are Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

Community Development Corporation (CDC) - Tax-exempt, non-profit organizations whose primary mission is the economic and social revitalization of distressed urban and rural areas. A CDC is a community-based organization carrying out its activities within a geographically defined area. CDCs may support or undertake such activities as housing development and rehabilitation, job training and counseling, and business development activities.

Community Facilities Program (CFP) - Administered by the Rural Housing Service of USDA, the CFP provides grants, loans, and loan guarantees to local governments, federally recognized native tribes, and nonprofit organizations. Funds are used to construct, expand, or rehabilitate such community facilities as hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, ambulatory care centers, police and fire stations, rescue and fire vehicles, communication centers, telecommunications, distant learning and telemedicine, child and adult care centers, jails, courthouses, airports, and schools.

Community food projects - A program administered by the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service providing one-time matching grants to private non-profit entities to establish and carry out multi-purpose projects designed to increase food security on a local, community-based level. Project objectives are to meet the needs of low-income people by increasing their access to fresher, more nutritious food supplies; to increase the self-reliance of communities in providing for their own food needs; and to promote comprehensive responses to local food, farm, and nutrition issues. Congress has provided from $1 million to $2.5 million annually for the program in recent years, which USDA has used to make grants ranging from $10,000 to $250,000 each.

Community Food Security - The availability within a community of adequate food market, with sufficient quality and quantity of food, and the financial and physical ability of the people in that community to acquire the available food.

Comparative Advantage - Refers to the economic theory that in international trade it is more advantageous for a country to devote its resources not to all lines of production in which it may have superiority (least cost production), but to those in which its relative superiority is greatest. Two countries may find trade mutually profitable even if one of the countries could produce all goods at lower cost than the other.

Competitive advantage - A situation in which one country, region, or producer can produce a particular commodity more cheaply than another country, region or producer.

Competitive bidding (for WIC) - With respect to the WIC program, refers to the method for containing program costs, particularly for infant formula contained in food packages; requires state WIC agencies to solicit bids to infant formula companies for the sale of their product. This is recommended but not required for other products sold through the program.

Competitive foods (in meal service) - Foods that may be regulated for sale in competition with the school lunch and breakfast programs under provisions of the National School Lunch Act.

Competitive imports - A term used by the Economic Research Service in its reporting of agricultural trade statistics to describe imports that are similar to and therefore competitive (in contrast to non-competitive) with those produced in the United States. Examples are beef, wheat, cotton, and sugar.

Complimentary imports - Agricultural import items not produced in appreciable commercial volume in the United States, such as bananas, coffee, rubber, cocoa, tea, spices and cordage fiber.

Composting - The controlled biological decomposition of organic material, such as sewage sludge, animal manures, or crop residues, in the presence of air to form a humus-like material. Controlled methods of composting include mechanical mixing and aerating, ventilating the materials by dropping them through a vertical series of aerated chambers, or placing the compost in piles out in the open air and mixing it or turning it periodically.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) - Also known as Superfund [42 U.S.C. §§9601 to 9675], is the federal law which authorized EPA to require the cleanup of sites contaminated by past disposal of hazardous waste.

Concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) - Generally, a facility where large numbers of farm animals are confined, fed, and raised, such as dairy and beef cattle feedlots, hog production facilities, and closed poultry houses. The Environmental Protection Agency has developed a specific regulatory definition of CAFO for the purposes of enforcing the Clean Water Act. The Act requires individual places that are potential sources of water pollution to obtain point source discharge permits that specify the allowable levels of effluent from each of these places. The regulations define "animal feeding operations" as those confining livestock or poultry for 45 days or more in a 12-month period in a facility that has no vegetative ground cover. Such places are further considered "concentrated," and therefore required to have an EPA permit, if they reach certain size limits or meet other criteria specified in the EPA regulations. Those size limits are 700 mature dairy cattle, 1,000 beef cattle, 100,000 chickens, 55,000 turkeys, 2,500 swine, or 10,000 sheep.

Concentration (economic) - A measure of the degree to which a few large firms dominate total sales, production, or capacity within an industry or market. The concern is that the more concentrated an industry, the greater the likelihood of price and market manipulation. For example, meat packer concentration has long been a concern of cattle producers. It is common to express concentration as a ratio, by stating the share (%) held by the top 4, 8, or 12 firms.

Concessional (export) sale - A sale in which a foreign buyer is allowed loan payment terms that are more favorable than those obtainable in the commercial market. Under P.L. 480, the concessional provisions (compared to the commercial market) may include a lengthy credit period, a grace period before repayment begins, and a low interest.

Conditional registration - Under special circumstances, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) permits registration o